Media Studies Mass Media

hAbstract: This essay explores what the media, mass media and mass communication is. As well as a major focus on the hypodermic needle theory also known as the magic bullet theory on the reception analysis, the passive audience and the encoding and decoding model with reference to relevant theorists and statements and examples from Africa and other countries. In conclusion this essay states that the reception analysis and the hypodermic needle theory both are important and complex in understanding the media and the active and passive audience.The hypodermic needle theory and the reception analysis is a complicated theory in the media world. These two theories explore how the media affects its audiences, both active and passive. This essay will explore through relevant examples and ideas from theorists, the hypodermic needle theory and the reception analysis, what they are and what role it plays in the media world and how the media affects the passive audience. The media is â€Å"a d iverse collection of industries and practices, each with their methods of communication, specific business interests, constraints and audiences† (Briggs and Cobley, 2001 ;1).And mass media according to TheFreeDictionary is, â€Å"A means of public communication reaching a large audience. † The media is almost everywhere in societies today and people view or listen to so much types of media every single day. As a result the media that is taken in affects its viewers and listeners subconsciously and are not aware of the impact that the media has on them. Mass communication thus, is the â€Å"process of transforming a message created by a person in a group to large audiences or market through a transforming device which is the medium† (J. Baran, Introduction to Mass Communication).As Connell (1984 :88) says that it is common that media’s message is distorted and misunderstood by society. Thus it effects the society subconsciously buy the way they act. The aud ience plays a vital role in the media world, because if the audience did not exist neither would the media. (Hanes) The media sends out information to the audience and the audience is there to receive it. â€Å"Audiences are not blank sheets of paper on which media messages can be written; members of an audience will have prior attitudes and beliefs which will determine how effective media messages are. (Abercrombie 1996, 140). Hence, the message received by the audience and how they interpret that message will depend on the background of the audience members, such as their values and beliefs, their attitudes and their circumstances. Furthermore, there are two types of audiences that are seen to take in media, the active audience and the passive audience. The active audience interacts with the media given to them, and they have the knowledge to challenge the messages that the media gives to them.The uses and gratifications model that was first expressed in the United states in the 1940s (Moores 1993) believed that audiences were active and that they had a choice as to the texts they received, and that they were able to choose the one that would satisfy their needs. The passive audience, as seen by the hypodermic needle theory just accept all the information given to them. â€Å"Passive audience an audience that does not interact with the media and†¦ it has no control of the medias influence on them†¦ † (Unknown. www. aber. c. uk. ). The hypodermic needle theory assumes that â€Å"the audience is passive in receiving and interpretation of media texts. † (Hanes, 2000). The media is seen to directly affect the passive audience and that it will have the power to directly influence the audience, because the audiences just take in and accept what the media gives to them. Children are often seen as a passive audience because they do not fully understand what they are viewing, thus are affected subconsciously and often act out what they have s een on TV.Teenagers often try to copy their celebrity role models and lose sight of what is real and what is fantasy (Manali Oak) The hypodermic needle theory which was explored by the Frankfurt School also known as the magic bullet theory is a famous theory that states that the media is a needle or magic gun and that it â€Å"injects the message into the audiences mind and it causes changes in the audience’s behaviour†¦ towards the message. †(Unknown. poundedmonk. wordpress. com ). The audience is passive and as a result the message is injected into their mind without their knowledge.Harold Lasswell was a well known theorist of the hypodermic needle theory stated that â€Å"the new mass media could directly influence and sway public influence. † Meaning that when the audience (which is passive) views something on the television or hears something on the radio, it affects the audience directly and unconsciously, and could possibly change the way the audienc e views a certain subject. For example, in 1930 Orson Wells created a fake news bulletin about an alien invasion in an American city called Grover’s Mill.He broadcasted this message on a Radio Station program called â€Å"The War of the Worlds†, and it reached about twelve million American people. Due to this broadcast the whole country was in chaos. (Taken from :communicationtheory. org) Additionally the Hypodermic needle theory’s supporters believed that because the audience is passive in that they receive and accept the messages given to them by the media texts that, they put a great emphasis on the text itself and the power that it has on the audience.However because that information about the texts are so readily available and very easy to access, that the Hypodermic needle theory is generally disregarded by many other theorists when they consider the audiences response to the media . (Idea taken from: Phillip J Hanes) an example of this is when apartheid c ame into action in South Africa, the white government controlled the media and showed the black people as weak and inferior to the white people and that they are the dominant race and should be in charge.Most of the white viewers believed and accepted this information and as a result treated the black people like they are inferior to the white people, and thus some of the black people began to believe that they are inferior to the whites. (International Afro Mass Media) However the hypodermic needle theory â€Å"was not based on empirical findings†¦ rather it employed assumptions†¦ about human nature. † and that â€Å"People were assumed to be†¦ controlled by their biological instincts†¦ † (Lowerg and Delfleur, 1995 . p. 400).As a result the Hypodermic effects model is â€Å"considered to be an inadequate representation of the communication between media and the public, as it does not take into account the audience as individuals with their own bel iefs, opinions, ideas and attitudes. † (Unknown: www. aber. ac. uk). Hence the quote above shows the complications that were aroused by other theorists when it came to the hypodermic needle theory of how information was just accepted by the passive audience. In addition the reception analysis plays a major role in the media.The reception analysis is the way in which the audience receives, accepts and interprets the message given to them in the media (www. museum. tv. com). The way that an audience will receive and interpret a message in the media usually depends on their â€Å"socio-economic position, gender, ethnicity and so forth. † For example if four people from different people from different societies, watch the same programme, each of them will have a different view on what they have just watched, showing that the way they receive a message will be etermined by their own individuality. (Journal of Communication, 1990, vol,40, no1, p. 73) The theory on audience re ception has taken into account â€Å"the individual members of the audience. It realises there is a preferred meaning in the text, but also places emphasis on the audience in the process of constructing a meaning. † (Hanes: www. aber. ac. uk/media) meaning that the reception theory does not just look at the audience as whole, but as well as the individuals in an audience and how the medias messages affect the individuals.In South Africa, research has been done, that shows that they youth in South Africa is very influenced by the media received from North America. Teenagers watch reality shows and believe that in order to be popular and liked by their peers they have to look, act and be a certain way. Hence showing that the youth, depending on their demographic that they are in are heavily influenced and effected by the messages that they receive from the media. (M. Way: Journalism and Mass Communication). Hals encoding and decoding model draws up on Abercrombie’s (1996 ) â€Å"dominant text view and the dominant audience view. The dominant text view states that the text is more important because the audience is passive they will be influenced by the messages given by the media. Whereas the dominant audience view states that the audience is more important because it â€Å"is up audience to analyze and interpret the text. † (Hall; 1980). The advantage of the encoding and decoding model is that â€Å"it realises that the meaning made by the audience is affected by various other factors – including socio/economic frameworks and past experiences, but also involving the context in which the media message is consumed. † (Hanes: www. aber. ac. uk/media).This statement means that if one person watches television while being distracted by two children will receive a different from another person who is watching the same television programme but is concentrating on what they are watching. The reception analysis views on how the audience receives the message and how the audience interprets the messages received by the media. Thus we can see that because everyone has different ethnicity, gender, socio-economic backgrounds and political views, that they will view the messages that they receive completely differently to any other person, showing that there is individuality in audiences.For example, a Zulu woman who is a domestic worker who lives in a black township who watches ‘Carte Blanche’ will interpret the message differently to a white business man who lives in a mansion in Northcliff who watches the exact same thing. â€Å"Due to different backgrounds and experiences,  each person has  his or her  own way for decoding messages, and  people could even form different interpretations toward the same message† (stereotypebyinternet. wordpress. om) Furthermore, because there are so many types of media being given to us as the consumers of the media, we become numb to many of the informatio n given to us that we begin to just accept the information and messages. The messages that are in many of the television programs that are consumed that they begin to affect the viewers subconsciously, and the viewers will eventually act out and behave like the people on the programs that they watch and begin to think that everything that they view on the television is acceptable and that, that is how normal or even popular people should behave. The first effect of reality TV deals with†¦ teenagers. Already with self-esteem and acceptance issues, adolescent youth that frequently watch television shows that are advertise as being ‘reality', most likely will have the delusion that their appearance should mirror the people they see on the shows. Like with magazines and tabloids that historically have caused harmful†¦ trends in teenagers, such as anorexia and bulimia, reality TV foster facades that are readily accepted by our youth. † (D.Watkins, 2008) In conclusio n one can see that the media, mass media, mass communication play an important role and are important to the hypodermic needle theory, the reception analysis, and in the encoding and decoding model. This essay also shows how the audience, passive and active play an important role in the theories mentioned in this essay, and that media consumption is a very complex activity. Bibliography Abercrombie, Nicholas (1996): Television and Society. Cambridge: Polity Press Branston, G and Stafford, R. 1999). The Media Student’s Book. London: Routledge (pp. 410-420). Cruz, J. & Justin Lewis (1994): Viewing, Reading, Listening: Audiences and Cultural Reception. Boulder, CO: Westview Gillespie, M. (2005). Media Audiences. Maidenhead: Open University Press (pp. 26-50) Hanes, Philip J (April 2000) The Advantages and Limitations of a Focus on Audience in Media Studies. Retrieved April 29, 2012 from: http://www. aber. ac. uk/media/Students/pph9701. html Hart, Andrew (1991): Understanding the Media: A Practical Guide.London: Routledge Koufie-Amartey, I, (2010) Hypodermic Needle Theory. Retrieved April 29, 2012 from: http://amartey1. blogspot. com/2010/04/hypodermic-needle-theory. html Nightingale, Virginia (1996): Studying Audiences: The Shock of the Real. London: Routledge O'Sullivan, Tim, Brian Dutton ; Philip Rayner (1994): Studying the Media. London: Edward Arnold Seiter, Ellen et al. (Eds. ) (1989): Remote Control. London: Routledge Strelitz, L. (2002). Media consumption and identity formation: the case of the ‘homeland’ viewers.Media, Culture ; Society, 24(4), 459. Taylor, L and Willis, A. (1999). Media Studies. Texts, Institutions and Audiences. Oxford: Blackwell (pp. 168-183). Watkins, D. (2008): The effects of reality TV. Retrieved April 30, 2012 from http://www. helium. com/items/933893-the-effects-of-reality-tv Way, M. Strelitz, Larry. Mixed Reception: South African Youth and their Experience of Global Media. Retrieved April 26, 2012 from: http:// findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_7081/is_1_26/ai_n28420075

Tram Accident and Driver Vision Enhancement

As a university student, you will need to continue your education by reading informative texts often and carefully. To practice this skill your homework assignment is to choose an article from a reputable source and read it. Your research reports should be completed on topics or themes related to your research topic somehow. You will need to print or make a copy of your article and attach it to this report.After reading an article of your choice from either: Newsweek Magazine, Time Magazine, Reader's Digest, or National Geographic Magazine answer the questions low. Do not write the title as an answer to any of the questions below other than number 1. Do not copy from the article. All answers should be in your own words. Proofread your writing for grammar, spelling, and punctuation mistakes. 1. Title: a printed copy also): 2. Author: 3. Source (Include 4. Date Published: 5. Why did the author write this article? Use a complete sentence. Points) Brian Dads wrote this article to explain the new technologies that help to reduce car crashes. Also, he represents the number of death, injured or disabled around the world. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 1. Million people worldwide die every year as a result of car crashes. This figure represents an average of 3242 people dying every day around the world. In addition to these deaths, between 20 million and 50 million people globally are estimated to be injured or disabled every year.Use correct punctuation (Points). Explain in two or three sentences what it meant to you and why you like/dislike this quote (Points). Use the space provided. The article titled † New Technologies to Reduce Road Accidents † reported that technology will significantly reduce the number of people killed in car accidents, currently more than 1. 2 million people per year worldwide.. The author wrote, † If drivers won't act to reduce road deaths, maybe technology will do the Job â€Å"(Dads 2010 ). T his quote is useful because it has shown that 150 points possible

Attachment Styles and Relationships

This paper will discuss how early relationships affect adults relationships later on in life. It will elaborate on the three dimensions each relationship has and they are passion, intimacy and commitment. The paper will include Robert Sternberg’s triangular theory of love. First, there are three types of attachments one may develop when we are infants. The first one is secure attachment. This manifests itself when an infant is with his or her mother and happily explores an unfamiliar environment.Furthermore, when the mother leaves, the infant will become distressed. On the other hand, when the mother returns, the infant runs to her and then continues playing (Bolt, 2004). Next, there is another type called avoidant attachment. These type of infants do not show distress when removed from their mother. They also do not cling to their mother upon reunion. They react to strangers in the same way they do with their mothers. They keep their attention focused on their toys (Bolt, 2004). The last type is called anxious attachment. In unfamiliar settings, these infants ling to their mother and cry when she leaves. However, when she returns, they are hostile. They do not explore their environment. These infants may continue to cry even after being picked up (Bolt, 2004). Attachment Styles and Relationships2 Furthermore, in adults relationships there are also three types. The first one is secure adults. This can be expressed when these adults find it easy to become close in a relationship. Their relationships are characterized by happiness, trust and friendship. They can accept and support their partners despite faults (Bolt, 2004). Next, the next type is avoidant adults. They are less invested in relationships and more likely to leave them. It seems that they are afraid to become too close to people. They have emotional highs and lows. They may have intimate relations with a partner without feeling love (Bolt, 2004). The last type of adult relationship is called anxious adults. These types are less trusting and demand reciprocation. They are generally more jealous and possessive. They may break up repeatedly with the same person. They can become angry and emotion hen discussing differences (Bolt, 2004). Furthermore, the reason this is so is because when these adult types were infants they lacked close physical proximity. This is important in any type of relationship. It helps for caregivers to for a bond with infants and adults to develop closeness in a relationship. Also, infants develop a feeling of security when they are held. The lack of this physical proximity contributes to the different attachment problems. This is an important aspect to look into. This means that a couple has to get to know each other’s similarities and differences. This is what brings them close to each other. This also helps the couple to learn what is best for their partner or spouse. Last, there are three types of commitment styles. The first one is personal commitment. This can been seen when two people are together because they enjoy each other. The second type is moral commitment. This happens when people feel an obligation to continue the marriage in order not to break their marital vows. This type of arriage is not based on true love. The third type is called constraint commitment in which people believe that they have to continue a relationship based on social, financial or emotional reasons. This is not a commitment out of love. In conclusion, to maintain a good relationship, a couple should have time to talk to each other. It is important to maintain good communication.

Soul Individualism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Soul Individualism - Essay Example Historically speaking, human life revolved around the idea of serving the divine being to gain worldly profits and satisfactory existence. A number of practices like human sacrifice for the sake of making the divine being happy are clear indicators of the fact that humans societies of the past were willing to go to any extent merely for the purpose of satisfying the blood thirsty nature of the divine being; and the fact that divine being is satisfied by bloodshed was merely their own thought with no solid proof behind. The concept of soul originated to explain a number of phenomena that could not be explained by ordinary means. The perception that soul is not destroyable appears to be a modern way of explaining the concept of soul. Human beings as individuals have been considered to be the embodiments of soul; every soul being enclosed within the body till the time of death; death being a state that results due to separation of body and soul. The coexistence of body and soul provided existence to an individual; the individual in turn possesses a self. In ancient languages like Hebrew, a word to explain ‘essential self’ is lacking; the self that could survive death (Watson 143). Politically speaking, around 510/509 BC, the Roman law manifested a number of changes that were more inclined towards preserving the rights of individuals rather than the divine being or the state (Watson 154). Law was becoming more and more powerful whereas the concept of depriving the ruler of unlimited powers was gaining pace. With the promotion of the concept of accountability, the individuals were gaining more and more power, and the system to run the state was becoming more and more humanistic. The conditions which led to the rise of the west appear to be similar to these conditions. In America from example â€Å"democracy was established on the western shores of the Atlantic and–equally important–that it was similar from community to

Thank you for smoking Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Thank you for smoking - Movie Review Example This depicts a frame of Nick’s character and probably explains the reason as to why he does not lose arguments. This is because he reframes the argument till he wins. Also the film highlights a major critique posed by the society. These are the powers which run the government and the industry and are engrossed in playing games rather than bothering about the stakes. In the talk show, Nick wins the argument by announcing the launch of a $50 million campaign to dissuade teenagers from smoking. However, the Captain when hearing about this campaign remarks ‘I hope the campaign is not too effective!’The Captain just hopes that the campaign does not effectively stop teenagers from being aware of cigarettes and not even start smoking. The satirical comedy shows the American Government also trying to win its own argument with the senator; Sen Ortolan Finistirre is the crusader against smoking. The senator further laments after Nick is kidnapped and then laments because â €˜he survived the attack’. Fallacies used by Nick Another conversation between a father and a son in California, where Nick coaches Joey the manner in which one has to win an argument. The setting is for a basic argument as to whether chocolate is good or vanilla. When Joey supports chocolate by remarking that chocolate is what he needs, Nick reframes the argument by retorting ‘well I need more than chocolate, and for that matter I need more than vanilla. I believe that we need freedom’. This displays the fallacy of red herring. In this kind of rhetorical strategy, the emphasis is shifted from the core issue to an unrelated or tangential issue to win an argument. In yet another argument Naylor uses the red herring fallacy. This is explicated when he is asked to testify in front of the senatorial committee. He says ‘Gentlemen, it’s called education ... It is the job of every parent to warn their children of all the dangers in the world, including c igarettes, so that one day when they get older they can choose for themselves.’ Here again, Nick waves from the central topic of cigarettes to that of parental responsibility, education and freedom. He is well aware that Americans love their freedom and thereby plays with these words to control their emotion. Naylor also uses the faulty analogy fallacy in the senatorial committee meeting. He compares the Conglomerated Tobacco’s cigarette funding with the funding for the senate’s campaign contributions. The ad hominem fallacy is used by Naylor when he suggests putting warning signs on certain products like Vermont cheddar cheese, cars and aeroplanes. The red herring fallacy is again used when Naylor points out the negative effects of Vermont cheddar cheese on raising cholesterol levels. In fact, Senator Lothridge has to interrupt to bring back Naylor and Senator Finisterre back on the core topic of whether to put warning labels on cigarette packets. The main prot agonist extensively uses logos to present his arguments in front of the senatorial committee. He logically concludes that if cigarette packets needed to display warning signs like ‘skulls and crossbones’ then other products like cars, airplanes and Vermont cheddar cheese should also have warning signs. He knowingly dissuades from the core topic by quoting ‘Well, the real demonstrated number one killer in America is cholesterol, and here comes Senator Finisterre, whose fine state is, I

Variables, Measurement, and Statistics Assignment

Variables, Measurement, and Statistics - Assignment Example The use of the above variables will help the nurse put the research into perspective for two groups, adults and other clients admitted to cardiac unit (Lash, Plonczynski, & Sehdev, 2012). In this particular research, it would be essential to measure these variables and record the values. The most suitable level of measurement would be ordinal, as this will help answer the PICOT question. Being that the research measures the likelihood of patients with congestive failure having nosocomial infections, ordinal measurement best fits the research. This is because the nurse is interested in the occurrence (or non-occurrence) of this attribute. This implies that using ordinal measurement will help the nurse collect and record the data in the most appropriate format (Adler & Parmryd, 2010). In ordinal measurement, the values the nurse will use in recording the findings will be of no numerical importance other than describing the occurrence (or non-occurrence) of a trait. A suitable statistical test to help answer the question is Pearson correlation coefficient. This correlation coefficient help determine the relation between two variables in question (Bishara, & Hittner, 2012). After the nurse collects data on the occurrence of nosocomial infections in both adults and other clients with congestive heart failure, it would be ideal for the nurse to correlate this variable for both groups. The correlation coefficient will then be useful in determining the likelihood of either group developing the infection. Adler, J., & Parmryd, I. (2010). Quantifying colocalization by correlation: the Pearson correlation coefficient is superior to the Manders overlap coefficient. Cytometry. Part A: The Journal of the International Society for Analytical Cytology, 77(8), 733-742. Bishara, A., & Hittner, J. (2012). Testing the significance of a correlation with nonnormal data: comparison of Pearson, Spearman, transformation, and resampling approaches. Psychological Methods, 17(3),

REAL ESTATE TRANSACTIONS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

REAL ESTATE TRANSACTIONS - Essay Example The attorney may in that case be included in the verification of the agreements. Once the seller signs the contract, he/she is bound by it. Because most of the signed contracts cannot be cancelled, the seller or the purchaser should never sign it unless he/she has shopped around for un-doubtful bargain and had enough time to think over it. When making a real estate sale, all siblings of the seller must have agreed with the specific amount of money that the buyer is willing to give otherwise the seller cannot sign the contract. However, a contract should be entered into to function as a binding agreement that contains clearly written escape clauses that are outlined in its text. Therefore, the buyer and the seller should enter into the transaction in full agreement with the listed terms as well as with provisional clauses that allow either the seller or the buyer to break the contract. Before the transaction has closed, the seller, just like the buyer, holds the right to cancel the co ntract through some procedures (Korngold and Goldstein 56). Dr. Jones should talk to her agent and explain why he wants to get out of the contract. He should discuss the matter with the broker about whether he is not happy with the provisions of the buyer. Although escape clauses are mostly built for the buyer, sellers can as well have their own exit opportunities. An estate sale requires total agreements from the rest of the family members. If the seller’s siblings disagree over the price of the sale, the contract may have provisions that allow for its cancellation. Therefore, if the buyer is not willing to break the contract, Dr. Jones can file a case in the court that the rest of his family members have disagreed with the sale price of the land and call for its cancellation. Dr. Jones does not have any right to cancel the contract after the close of the transaction unless he engages in a discussion with the brokers, which can only allow for the change after agreements with the broker and the purchaser. Question2: After the option, period and the buyer feels like terminating the agreement and get back their deposit or the earnest money, the title company asks the both the seller and the buyer to sign a release form of their earnest money. Both parties must sign the release form that points out to whom the earnest money should go and the specific amounts before the company disburses them (Korngold 97). If the seller or the buyer cancels a valid agreement on a contract without legal justification, the person who makes the cancellation may be liable for some damages by the other person. The buyer will run the risk of losing the deposit that was placed on the estate at the time of signing of the purchase offer. Either of the two parties may be held responsible for the broker’s commission. In the same way, if the buyer decides to terminate the contract after the signing, he /she hold the risk of losing his/her earnest money. Abby can decide to notif y to Dr. Jones that she wants to terminate the contract and the seller can give her earnest money back. However, this is only applicable during the option period, the due inspection and diligence period. It becomes trickier when the option period passes. According to the agreement that had been signed by the three parties, Abby did not provide any condition for the purchase of the estate. Before a signature is laid on the contract agreement, the two

LitReview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

LitReview - Essay Example Consideration of a threat doles out as a restriction or limitation that creates hindrances to perform required tasks as it dissuades to take action considering losses and costs. The whole process can be seen as a military action in which, concerned parties are restricted to take any military action that would affect the foreign policy objectives of the two involved states. Any sort of initiation of combating action is deterred. Rational choice theory is another theory that is influential in terms of cyber security. This theory allows contemplation and differentiation of varied accessible tactics. Cornish & Clarke (1986) inform that this theory emerged considering a notion related to cost benefit analysis. For example, a criminal conducts a crime when it appears advantageous to him. The theory also puts light on challenger’s haziness towards defender’s selected option. Nevertheless, the theory fails to resolve the strategized relationship between concerned parties, which are thoroughly reviewed in game theory (Understanding Society, 2008). The challengers select their intended defenders diligently and also work on their combating strategies considering previously employed strategies by the defenders. According to Cavusoglu, Raghunathan & Yue (2008), Decision theory is weak in handling the challengers’ worked out strategies and revisiting of defender’s actions because as per the theory, defender regards challenger’s devised performances as ‘exogenous’. According to the game theory, defender’s choices and challenger’s actions are endogenous. According to the decision theory, the scenarios according to which, the involved parties have to take action are predefined due to which, the actions performed by actors are regarded exogenous. Von Newmann and Morgenstern (1944) inform that each contestant is eligible to evaluate ‘variables’ of his actions only. There are rational rules involved in cons idering of variables and comprehension of variables of other’s actions, which cannot be determined statistically. Therefore, it has been required to explore a more viable theory that can be applied to cyber security. Researchers have moved towards game theory to comprehend the relationship between actors in cyber security issues. In addition, Nisan and Ronen (1999), Nisan (2007) inform about mechanism design that has assisted towards development of protection and privacy mechanisms. These mechanisms are designed with the support of systematic results. Because of usage of game theory, there are certain security decisions. These security decisions are supportive in terms of distribution of restricted resources, stability of professed problems and consideration of core inducement mechanisms. In game theoretical model, more than one person are involved in the decision making process and examining the decisions made where players are either directly or indirectly involved to share the resources provided in the game. Games relevant to the strategic security can be simple or complex. The game can be helpful in solving the simple as well as complex formulated security issues. The security issues can be related to the wireless or computer controlled communication programs. The strategy can provide a solution of the user privacy issues, etc. Utilizing this theoretical model, a defender keeps maintaining the security of the network and the system, while an attacker always tries to access the secure

Management - Group Effectiveness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Management - Group Effectiveness - Essay Example This paper aims at exploring various dimensions of team effectiveness and strategies. An example of a cross functional team will also be discussed to build a clear understanding of issues and problems in building effective teams from a practical approach. Formation of Group Formation of the group is the first and the most fundamental part of group effectiveness. The selection of the right size and the right members is of vital importance for the success of any group. My group was formed when my organization decided to launch a new product. It was line extension. My organization formed a cross functional team. Group members were selected from different departments according to the requirements of the project. My group consisted of eight employees from three different departments of the organization i.e. procurement and supply chain, production and marketing. The purpose or task of the group was the successful launch of the product. Like all work groups my group also passed through the four stages of group development after formation namely mutual acceptance, decision making, motivation and commitment, and control and sanction. When a group passes through these stages, a successful group becomes a mature group. According to the group development model any group has three major issues i.e. interpersonal issues, task issues, and authority issues. Group effectiveness can be increased by taking care of these three issues. The interpersonal issues include aspects like trust, personal comfort and security. The task issues include purpose of the group, what the group wants to achieve i.e. the expected outcomes and the methods utilized to achieve those outcomes. The authority issue deals with the hierarchy of power and role definition of every member in the group along with the chain of command. A clear and unambiguous definition of these issues helps improves effectiveness of the group (Debra L. Nelson, 2011). Group Effectiveness There are various external and internal factors that are responsible for group effectiveness. It includes group size, time, diversity in group in terms of gender, age, culture and interpersonal diversity, group cohesion, norms of the group etc. Our group had all these factors. There are many characteristics of a successful group such as an effective open communication possible through a relaxed, comfortable and informal atmosphere. The group task which was in our case was the successful launch of the product in the predetermined time lines, must be clear to all group members. Group members are not able to hold task open discussions about task related goals but are keen to listen to one another. Group cohesion and communication is so strong that people express both their feelings and ideas. Conflicts do happen as a healthy sign but they revolve around task, methods and ideas and not personalities. The group has a good understanding and is aware and conscious of its functions. Decisions are taken through mutual consensus. G roup assigns clear duties to each member with their consent. My group has all these characteristics of an effective group (Jane Goodman, 2006). Effective Group Communication The study of group dynamics in various theories and research revealed that enhancing group effectiveness requires complex skills, techniques and knowledge that creates choices, opportunities and success not only for the group but for the individual as well. Effective communication was identified as an effective tool in

My Great Passion for Therapy Essay Example for Free

My Great Passion for Therapy Essay This paper entitled â€Å"My Great Passion for Therapy† has several objectives. First, it intends to discuss the topic in psychology that interests me most – â€Å"therapy†. Another objective of this paper is to explain the aforementioned and state some of the types of therapy. Last but not least, it aims to share my personal preference, as well as, why I would like that kind of therapy to apply in case I become a therapist in the future. Therapy Defined   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Therapy† is a standard terminology that explains the purpose of â€Å"medical, psychiatric, psychological or alternative designed to promote health and well-being† (World Self-Medication Industry n. p.). For me though, it means that, it is a kind of professional help that addresses a wide range of dilemmas related to the mental state of an individual. Types of Therapy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are several types of therapy and some of these are the following:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   First of all is known as â€Å"psychoanalytic therapy† which has been established by â€Å"Sigmund Freud† (Wagner n.p.). In this particular kind of therapy, the â€Å"psychoanalytic therapist† obliges himself to attend to what the client/patient says about his or her life (Wagner n.p.). It is also technically referred to as â€Å"talk therapy† because of that (Wagner n.p.). The â€Å"psychoanalytic therapist† analyses the narration provided to him or her and find important occurrences that may contribute to the client/patient’s existing difficulties/hardships (Wagner n.p.). Furthermore, the â€Å"psychoanalytic therapist† pays attention to the occurrences during the client/patient’s childhood days, â€Å"unconscious emotions, opinion/judgment, as well as, motivations  Ã¢â‚¬  because they extremely believe that the aforementioned contribute largely to an individual’s â€Å"mental illness, as well as, maladaptive behaviors† (Wagner n.p.). Moreover, â€Å"psychoanalytic therapy† is said to be â€Å"exceedingly expensive, time-consuming, as well as, ineffective†, however, it is said that it has been very helpful as well since simply sharing personal thoughts, emotions, and problems, as well as, knowing that somebody is willing to listen already minimizes stress and tension on the part of the patient/client (Wagner n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The second is known as â€Å"cognitive therapy†, a kind of therapy which actually looks into â€Å"specific dilemmas or issues† (Wagner n.p.). Here, the â€Å"cognitive therapist† focuses on the unreasonable/illogical/flawed thoughts and insights (Wagner n.p.). This is because the â€Å"cognitive therapist† believes that the aforementioned brings about â€Å"dysfunctions† (Wagner n.p.). What â€Å"cognitive therapist† does is to help the patient/client alter his or her unreasonable/illogical/flawed thoughts and insights (Wagner n.p.). For instance, if a client/patient fears â€Å"open spaces/crowded places/public places†, then the â€Å"cognitive therapist† will assist the client/patient to face that fear through actual experience (Wagner n.p.). The â€Å"cognitive therapist† may help the client/patient to imagine himself or herself to be in such a situation/location before eventually exposing the client/patient to experience the actual fear (Wagner n.p.). That is what the â€Å"cognitive therapist† will do until the aforementioned phobia is decreased or entirely eliminated (Wagner n.p.). In addition to the aforementioned, â€Å"cognitive therapy† is said to be extremely helpful especially when it comes to depression- and anxiety-related cases (Wagner n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The third is technically referred to as â€Å"group therapy† (Wagner n.p.). This is categorized under â€Å"psychotherapy† wherein â€Å"two or more clients work with one or more therapists or counselors† (Wagner n.p.). Furthermore, this is usually carried out by â€Å"support groups† in order for the members of the group to discover and learn from other individual’s experiences and recommendations (Wagner n.p.). Moreover, â€Å"group therapy† is advantageous because it provides emotional support to those who feel â€Å"alone, isolated, or different† (Wagner n.p.). Interestingly, â€Å"group therapy† has been claimed to be â€Å"more cost effective than individual psychotherapy and is oftentimes more effective† (Wagner n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The fourth is known as â€Å"Solution-focused Brief Therapy†, which is utilized to address â€Å"a wide range of dilemmas including the following: 1) anxiety; 2) depression; 3) mental health-related problems; 4) oppression experiences; 5) pain; 6) problems in sleeping; 7) work-related dilemmas; 8) relationship problems (including differences with children, with spouse, and with close friends); 9) stress; 10) substance abuse (including drugs and alcohol); 11) etc† (The Brief Therapy Practice n.p.). Here in the â€Å"Solution-focused Brief Therapy†,   â€Å"instead of solving problems, it builds solutions† and so the modifications/transformations that may happen are unswerving, and thus, such changes are most likely to last (The Brief Therapy Practice n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fifth is â€Å"play therapy†, which typically addresses the developmental dilemmas of young individuals, i.e. children (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research n.p.). A â€Å"play therapist† is motivated to play, paint, and indulge themselves in other interesting activities in order for them to â€Å"effortlessly communicate their emotions and feelings if they lack the cognitive development to articulate themselves with words† (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Last but not least is known as â€Å"interpersonal therapy†, which is the kind of therapy that pays attention to the patient/client’s â€Å"current relationships† with other individuals (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research n.p.). Here, the â€Å"interpersonal therapist’s† main objective is to develop the patient/client’s â€Å"interpersonal skills† for him or her to be able to properly â€Å"relate to other individuals including his or her family, friends, and colleagues† (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research n.p.). In addition to that, the â€Å"interpersonal therapist† plays a large role in the patient/client’s assessment on his or her interaction with other people and â€Å"develop strategies for dealing with relationship and communication problems† (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research n.p.). Personal Preference and Reasons for it   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  I prefer the fourth one. If I become a therapist I am most likely to choose â€Å"Solution-focused Brief Therapy† because of the following reasons:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   First of all, the more conventional/traditional types are all expensive (The Brief Therapy Practice n.p.). â€Å"Solution-focused Brief Therapy†, on the other hand, is not; in fact, statistical information show that there are several â€Å"economically-challenged† individuals go for this type of counseling/therapy to address their personal dilemmas simply because they cannot afford the luxurious fees of the other types of therapy suggested to them (The Brief Therapy Practice n.p.). In fact, this kind of psychological therapy may also be availed free of charge to those individuals â€Å"who really do not have the capacity to pay but needed to solve a certain dilemma† (The Brief Therapy Practice n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In addition to the aforementioned, I prefer â€Å"Solution-based or Solution-focused Brief Therapy† because it is â€Å"brief† (The Brief Therapy Practice n.p.). I must admit that I tend to get impatient with regards to waiting for positive results and so I like this one because it is said that a dilemma is addressed in not more than five sessions of counseling/therapy (The Brief Therapy Practice n.p.). Works Cited    Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. Psychotherapy: An Overview of the    Types of Therapy. 2008. n.a. 23 February 2008. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/psychotherapy/MH00009 The Brief Therapy Practice. Solution Focused Brief Therapy. 2003. n.a. 23 February 2008. http://www.brieftherapy.org.uk/ Wagner, K.V. Types of Therapy. 2008. The New York Times Company. 23 February 2008.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://psychology.about.com/od/psychotherapy/a/treattypes.htm World Self-Medication Industry. Therapy. 2004. n.a. 23 February 2008.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.wsmi.org/glossary_st.htm

Start An Online Business Plr Marketing Essay

Start An Online Business Plr Marketing Essay Building a business from scratch is not an easy feat. Competitions in the business arena is stiff and hence without careful planning, you might end up with a huge debt to battle. The most important thing in a business is to have that added advantage against your competitors and nowadays, that added advantage can be an online business. Everyone is into the borderless cyber world nowadays and are taking advantage of the vast network that internet provides But there is a dwindling question as to whether anyone would look at your website? Thirdly, is to create your own website, you need skills such as web designs, programming, accounting, and also law to monitor the legal aspect of the business. You do not have to do it alone; you can hire people with such expertise or through a joint partnership with someone. Fourthly, gaining a customer database and to attract buyers to come to your website. A new online business irregardless, of how attractive the product is and how dazzling the designs are, might not get the same attention as a respectable online business that has been around for quite a while. Online business if successful can expand to the far reaches of the world. Unfortunately, if the business never gains its momentum it is left with only a website and few passerby visitations. Another option you can look at is through PLR. Known as Private Label Rights it helps in starting your own online business by being the reseller or your product. Through PLR you can promote your business to an extended base of customers without worrying that you have release the copyright of your product. Customers who are avid internet buyers are familiar with the PLR website. This can help you as customer database is important in ensuring the survival of a business. There are however one thing that you have to take note. You might not be able to maintain the name of your service or product as originally planned. PLR will change the name of the product to make it as if it is their own without intruding your right as legal owner of the business. The intention of PLR is to help new online business owner to get their footing in the online arena. Once they are acknowledge, online business owners can venture into other ideas with a string of customers in their portfolio. (internet business models)Business Models Available in the Internet You may be an expert in a particular product and would like to start off your very own internet business. Its a great idea, but what kind of business do you want exactly? You might want to consider certain options first of all, probably an online product auction could be started, or you could gather your buddies to sell various products at one site. Those are just a few internet business models to be chosen. Every internet business model depicts on certain skills and involves a certain set of errands. Each business models have a different basis of revenue. The type of website functionality required for each business models need to be understood. You need to know which components provide the capability to estimate your associated costs. Internet business models are perchance the least understood and most discussed web aspect. A business model is a means of doing business by which a company is able to sustain itself by generating revenue. Internet business models explain in simple terms on how a company earns profit by stipulating where the company is positioned in the value chain. Certain business models are pretty simple. A particular company generates a service or product and sells it to the customers. The sales revenue exceeds the cost of operation and the company gains a good profit if it things turn out to be good. While on the other hand, other business models can be more complicatedly woven, for an example, broadcasting. The television and radio programming have been broadcasted absolutely free for anyone with a receiver over the past century. A complex network of advertising agencies, content creators, distributors, and viewers are part of the broadcasters. There are three most common internet business models which are information delivery, service sales, and product sales. Information delivery provides an informational website, service sales offers services, whereas product sales are for selling goods. Each models work differently, along with responsibilities, profits, and costs associated with it. There are several internet models for making profits by information delivery. Portals and online publications are the most common internet business models. Products, as well as services, could be sold through the internet. The service sales business models examples are such as online malls that provide services from various vendors from the same site, online brochures which depicts your service and provide the particular contact information, and also service sites which bring an automated version system of offline services to the internet. An internet business based on product sales is on the subject of selling shippable physical product via online. Three major ways to sell products in the internet are by online mall, auction, and storefront. Online mall is a site that provides products from various types of vendors. Internet business models have been categorized and defined in various ways. It is an attempt to present a comprehensive and convincing classification of the business models visible in the internet. The proposed classification is not meant to be thorough or ultimate. The internet business models continue to progress. Innovative and worthy of note variations can be expected in the future. Start an Online Business and Experience the Advantages Starting an online business is similar to operating any other kind of business. Good business ethics should be practiced, for example, budding long-term business dealings, offering services and products at a fair price, and also practising truthful advertising to build customers confidence. All these are applicable to any kind of businesses, and this includes when you start an online business. Online revolution continues to spread. Millions and millions of people across the globe will be able to access Internet as the years pass by. The World Wide Web has become a business tool and altered the way businesses are conducted. Drop the thought that you may get rich quick via the Internet. A great achievement truly depends on ones perseverance, patience, and capability of taking advantage of opportunities in the fast-moving environment. It is definitely a lot of hard work for a good pay off. There are many advantages in the online business as a home-based worker. You may have a very minimal start-up capital and since you will be using the internet, you will be able to operate your business in the comfort of your own home. You will never have to worry about an office space. You will be able to connect with the whole world right from where your location is with the existence of the Internet. If you dont own a computer yet, you would only need to purchase a good computer, a telephone line, get an Internet connection, and some notebooks. Other equipments can be purchased later, depending on the financial status. If you are a home-based business venture, a low budget is assumed. However, this is never a problem in the Internet. You may use a credit card for getting Internet services if you own one. The Internet gives you access beyond boundaries to you all over the world. All you have to do is to grab the opportunity to use it wisely. You are connected to all sorts of foreign contacts, investors, and consumers in a click of the computer mouse. The online business gives you a great growth potential if you do your things right. Your potential clients and customers could be doubled or tripled in no time. Your market grows faster than you think, as your presence get noticeable 24 hours a day worldwide. You will also be able to work on your own hours. Is it undeniable that the working hours may be more that you would have imagined. However, you will be able to experience the flexibility of working from home. You can always be casual on your dress code at home, have meals and snacks in between every now and then, while watching over your home and family. Starting an online business can be done without leaving your home. Adding to these advantages, you will also get to advertise your promotions inexpensively in the Internet. You may make use of every free advertising websites and links that are readily available for almost anybody. You would only have to know how to write as the Internet is a content market. You will have the edge as long as you are excellent in written communication. It all depends on your ability to present your service and product in writing. (Online Businesses)Free-time Online Businesses Suggestions A part time business could be really easy to start-off, requires minimal money and time and without technical expertise. It is very easy to maintain an online business. One is more likely to be successful and content when they do something that they find fun and exciting. Here are a few top ways to earn some extra cash on the Internet: 1. eBay eBay is known as one of the biggest online marketplaces available which makes you get your own business going like a piece of cake. An account can be opened anytime and you could start earning cash within hours. Have a glance at some of the biggest eBay Power Sellers and become aware of how they focus on every specific goods such as dog grooming kits, mobile phones, iPods, laptops, and etc. This gives them an opportunity to influence their efforts. Cash flows in over and over again with a single listing which is created only once. This online business requires the handling of physical products unlike information marketing. 2. Information Marketing The Internet offers you an ideal medium to exchange information for money. As you think about your interests or your career, virtually anything you could think of can be turned into extra income. It could be The secrets to a healthy lifestyle or A recipe for making a chocolaty cheese cake or even How to play a guitar in 2 weeks. Do not worry for being a beginner in it; as long as you are informative more than average regarding the informational topic, the information is counted valuable enough. Besides, if you are less confident regarding a particular topic of your interest, you could always browse through the Internet via search engines to read various articles written by others to get some ideas and information. This is probably the easiest way to obtain information and earn some cash out of it. 3. Blogging Blogging is most suitable for those who enjoy communicating and sharing ideas regarding a particular discussion topic. Blogs could be journals of various topics and writing on a particular topic on your blog may have a higher chance for monetary success. There is an endless range of topics available such as star gazing, automobiles, photography, parenting, teenagers, celebrity gossips, gadgets, or even travel destinations. There are blogs written just about almost anything you could think of. Competition is never to be worried about. Those who read a blog are most likely to read various blogs available regarding the topic that they are looking for, as long as the blog contains some interesting contents. Money could be made passively with things like the Google AdSense once your blog starts getting traffic. 4. Yahoo! Store Yahoo! Store is almost similar to eBay as both are very large marketplace and store. You could consider having a retail outlet without the hassles of employees, rent, utilities, and other expenses of a normal physical store. The best part is that it can be done hands-off or hands-on as drop-shippers will do most of the work on behalf of you. You would not even have to pay the register until you manage to make a sale. Do some research on the Internet and check out products that people love to shop for. Set a niche for your business. This business needs a little more upfront work, but it could be maintained with less regular input from you once the upfront work is done. (selling information products)Tips on Selling Information Products via Blogging More people are blogging nowadays and many are seeking opportunity to branch out their income streams. Some are just discovering blogging, and they are familiar right away that blogging is an ideal platform for selling information products. If you already own a blog without a product, you are still on the right track for this online business. Here are five tips for creating and selling information products via blogs. The first tip is on blogging for product ideas. It is important to have a great deal of enthusiasm and knowledge regarding any topic that you may want to develop into an information product for online sale. Knowledge is the key to make a product valuable. On the other hand, if you lack knowledge, but have great enthusiasm to learn about a certain subject matter, it would be great as the enthusiasm will open up your mind to learn. Start blogging once you have got the general topic. Blogging allows you to interact with your readers that will definitely give you a valuable market insight. Survey your readers but asking them what they want. Blogging that are done on a regular basis with a set schedule will be an excellent motivator to get the writing done on time. It also takes you in new and improved commands, thanks to the feedback, so that an improved end result can be obtained. The relationships that you develop within your niche are one of the most important reasons to blog. Contents that attracts readers should be created, and try networking with various blog owners that have complimentary viewers. This networking tactic gets you links that leads to traffic, ultimate buyers and also subscribers. However, it is the relationship you establish that has higher value than that. Those important people could also be a source for crucial pre-launching feedbacks, joint venture partners, and affiliates. It is an undeniable fact that recruiting quality people to join venture is hard, but it would be much easier when you have built up credibility with your blog. A couple of the introductory chapters in the book could be given free of charge in a PDF format to entice the prospects of selling your books. You could exchange it for an opt-in email address. Chapters can be delivered via email, which eventually allows you to follow up your readers with promotions, special offers, and reminders. Excerpts usually work because the first introductory chapters should make a natural excellent selling tool for the remaining content of the book. This is because a well thought-out e-book will give an impression to the reader about what they are going to read before they get into the actual content of the whole book. A tutorial or mini-course that explains the content of the book can also be done. This tell and sell technique highlights the benefits of obtaining access to the book. Information products do not always have to be in a writer format. They could be video presentations, screen captures, tele-seminars, or even audio recordings. Consequently, a complimentary tutorial hunts at what the learning experience will be like after the purchase of the e-book. PLR articles Do you have a writers block? Never seem to be able to get your ideas on that piece of paper? Or you are over your head with deadlines? You have a huge pile of website request to write its contents but have not time to sit down and research? There is a simpler way to solve your problem which is through PLR. What is PLR? PLR is known as Private Label Rights, a place where you can buy an article or a whole stack of articles from a third party. Basically, the concept is that a third party or PLR website owners buys the articles from freelance writers and sells it on their website. Who buys the articles? The articles are bought by companies to use in their websites, documents, blogs, or even ideas in their e-books. The new owners can adjust the content of the articles to their satisfaction. A lot of time on research can be saved through the PLR articles. Some of the freelance writers have experience and are familiar in the industry. Their research and notes will give a detail information on the topic chosen. This is very useful if you are board down with numerous blogs and website waiting to be launch and you have no time to do the research yourself. There is a possible glitch with PLR articles as they tend to be used by many persons. Since the articles are for sale and it is sold in a general website, a lot of people are using the articles. This can be overcomed this by adjusting the article and hence personalising the content ,making it your own. You may find it tedious to rewrite someone elses work instead of writing your own article. But imagine the time you can save from doing research if you purchase a PLR article. All of the ideas and information are provided and all you need to do is rectify and enhance the article as you see best. What are PLR articles used for? As mention earlier , aside from writing websites content these articles are used in blogs to give information and make it attractive to the readers. But what some people do not know is that it can also be used for audio and video product. The PLR articles can be used as scripts to convey messages or information. You can read out loud the article and make some changes to avoid plagiarism. It can also be used as a marketing campaign. It would be pretty dull to have the same leaflet as your competitor, make it your own, brush up on the articles and put some zen into it. You would have heard of E-books. You can use PLR articles to compile similar subjects , and by adding a few tweaks and it would be good enough to sell it to the online market. Many times in the articles we have mention a few words repetitively, words such as information, research and time are the key strategy in a PLR article selling. We can assure you that you would not waste your money nor time if you purchase the PLR articles as it may help you to get the promotion that you have been yearning to achieve all along. Selling products online. Interested in generating income? You have a product which you know will sell in the market but you have no idea how to sell it. More and more people are looking at the cyber world to sell their product. Granted, that this method has more advantage then the normal way of marketing. One thing is that it can reach a vast numbers of people. The downfall is that when you sell your product online it has to be easy to search for, user friendly for those people who are web illiterate or just have know time to search numerous websites for a product. You have to come up with a user friendly search engine. Simple the websites find the customer for you. Another thing you have to look at, is that people spend a lot of time and money in creating a very colorful webpage , unfortunately there are not many people that comes in to view your product. You might end up with just a pretty webpage and no business. One alternative that you can look at is to try out PLR website. Its main purpose is to help new online business such as yourself. PLR or also known as Private Label Rights is gaining popularity especially in the internet. PLR will help to sell your product through their own website with which has a constant string of customers that submit their request to buy products. One catch is that PLR can modify the name of your product to make it more appealing to the customers. PLR will also help on the marketing campaign and information content. PLR systems can help you on customers database branching throughout the world. You do not have to worry on creating a search engine, PLR has negotiate with a lot website domains to advertise their product, making it easier for customers to find you. PLR also can teach you on how to start an online business guiding you through to success. Internet Business Start Up. Not a Myth Anymore, by  PLR  (Private Label Rights)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Everyone is telling their own stories. Flooded with too much information in how to start an Internet business? Let  PLR, Internet Business Start Up  guides you through this ocean of information.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First of all, what to sell? Well, you can choose to sell something you are familiar with, interested in or something in demand. You are likely to come up with something of higher quality than the rest by selling your interest as you place your heart and soul into it. However, it might not be in demand. Selling something which is already in high demand is alike grabbing a piece of hot selling cake, knowing you will earn some money for sure. However, in the long run, your credibility might be jeopardized as you have neither sufficient product nor background knowledge. So, please choose one. This is not a perfect world. Thus, there is no perfect choice with only pros and no cons.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Made up your mind already? Now, lets jam start your Internet business. Firstly, you need a domain. Select your domain name carefully as this is how your prospects are going to find you. In fact, there are people selling unique domain names out there, making their own business already. A tip, the shorter your domain name is, the better it is.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Next, start designing your website. Do not tell me content is more important than the mere design of your website and that you should not judge a book by its cover. How on earth are you going to sell your products when people get turn off at the very first sight of your page and just click the x button on the top right of your window? Packaging matters! Welcome to the harsh reality of the business world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Third, host your website. The top 3 considerations in choosing your web hosting company are, guarantees, REAL live support and upgrade path. Make sure the company provides money back guarantee if you cancel your business with them earlier than expected. As for REAL life support, make sure the support is REAL! Many companies claim they can support you 24/7 but many are empty promises. Next, make sure your host is capable of providing you an upgrade path when your business eventually grows. No just additional space but marketing tools, Spam, Virus filtering etc.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Last but not least, set up your email. I am not talking about your personal email. You need a different email for your business and each hosting company has different protocols for email set ups. Please remember to include a signature line at the bottom of your mail.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Now that everything is in place, start promoting! There are many ways to drive traffic to your website. If you have the budget, try out Google AdWords. Google is the hottest search engine in the market at the moment. Thus, it would be a worthy investment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cannot remember all these? Worry not. You can always refer to  PLR, Internet Business Start Up  guide.  Ã‚   Starting a Home Business     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The starting a home business is the one depends on one hand that not depends on one in the advertisement or the one of your friend or relatives promoting.  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By following the below six steps in starting a Home Business that will help you succeed in business.   Assess your talents Assessing ones talents that they are good is like a personality qualities for starting a home based business. Like in other business ones, in home based business also ones talent is base for the success of the business.   Examine your skills Skills are the things that one can do. The major difference between the ones skills and talents is that talents are the one born with it and skills are develop it over the time.   Generate the business ideas by putting ones talents and skills together The steps that highlighted here it can suit for any kind of business since we are focusing mainly in starting the home based business. The questions here is With my existing skills and talents, what type of home business could I do?   When one doing this exercise they may have more than one skills and the list of possible home based business is much longer.   Give your business ideas the home-based business test. In reality all businesses are not going to work well as home-based business. So go back to the list of business idea and cross that wont work as home based businesses.  Ã‚   Most of the people who wanted to start the home based businesses will stop here and come up with an idea for a home based business that they like and that they feel good.   If one who does like that will run an extremely risk   of investing months of ones time, energy and money in a business that may leads to fail.  Ã‚   Coming up with the business plan and finding out the profit angle are two important processes in starting a home based business. These are two things many people dont bother when starting a home based business.   Figuring out the Profit Angle This is the important test for anyone wanted to start the home based business. If the profit making potential of each your ideas is not satisfactory cross that idea off from the list. Most of the people run the home based business as a supplement to their main income.   Prepare a business plan to assess the viability of your new home based business The primary reason to do a business plan is to find out that ones business idea has a chance of becoming a successful business. Most of the people think that doing the business plan is just to help to get the business loan. Actually the research and planning on the business ideas which ensures that the home based business that ones start will succeed.   By following the above outlined six steps one will end up with an idea for a home based-business that truly has the potential to succeed.   No More Strives to Make Ends Meet! A Guide on  How to Make Money on the Internet  by  PLR (Private Label Rights)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Long, long time ago, making money on the Internet requires quite a lot, such as your own products, a domain or your own website. However, ever since dot-coms bloomed like no one cares, making money is much easier than you can ever imagine now. You need neither your own website nor your own goods. You do not even have to hard sell anything. So, what do you need? Just think smart. Any idea has the opportunity to turn into a golden idea nowadays. Below is a guide to  how to make money on the Internet  by  PLR.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to many resources, information products are the best sellers on the Internet. In fact, about 92 percent of people get online to look for information. We are in the information age after all. Not a specialist? Not an expert? Not a consultant? Worry not! Relax and think about your hobbies, your interests or maybe anything you know such as how to babysit, how to stay awake at night, a-n-y-t-h-i-n-g and give it a shot. Write and post it on the net. Who knows, your mail box might be flooded the next day with tons of requests for your articles, paying you big fat cash! Alright, if you really know nothing, do not be sad, you are neither sentenced to death nor it is the end of the world. Just take some time to talk to people who know-how. Tap into their brains and come up with a report yourself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Information selling is not your cup of tea? Fine, there are tons of other ways to make money online. 1 of them is by taking online surveys. All you have to do is sit back and answer, answer, answer and you get paid! It is as simple as that. However, please be cautious on survey websites. Take only those which are established or you might get scammed. Examples of websites that are legitimate include GlobalTestMarket.com and AIP Online Surveys.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bored with surveys? Play games to earn! It sounds too good to be true? Well, believe it. According to eHow, you are paid to play at  moola.com. It is believed that this website generates its income through ads posted there. Paying you to play their games is simply enticing you and many more to their website. The heavier the traffic, the more income they generate.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Want to know more on  how to make money on the Internet  by  PLR? Here is another tip. Today, most of us are bloggers ourselves. Besides sharing thoughts, pictures, you can actually advertise other peoples products on your blog. However, it is advised that you choose products which you are either familiar with or interested in as this will help you out a lot. Include links to the products, create sales pages for them and you are ready to roll them out. This is called affiliate marketing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Besides these, you can also make money by reviewing others  websites, reading complains and addressing them to the appropriate companies etc. In short, as the saying goes, where there is a will, there is a way. Check out PLRs website to know more about making online money. Sell Information Products  by  PLR  (Private Label Rights)! Start Earning like Nobodys Business!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First of all, what are information products? Well, these products include reports, books etc. With the blooming of the World Wide Web, information products are no longer limited to these hard copies products. Anything that is knowledge-based and can be sent / delivered electronically is considered as an information product, example, e-books, newsletters etc. Thus, information products are also known as digital goods.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Now, why are digital goods selling way faster and better than normal hard copies products? Simple, the costs to start off and reproduction are near zero! You only need your brains. Even if you do not have the talent to write, you can still  sell information products  provided by  PLR. You only need to sign up as their member and you will have access to a large pool of information products which you can sign off as your own and start selling. Besides these, you can even throw your worries about inventory keeping and shipping out of the window. Why on earth do you need a warehouse or whatever for your products when they are digital copies which you can just save in your computer? As for shipping, please enlighten me how to ship a piece of digital good. You only need to press the send button on your screen! It should be clear now that you can actually kick off your 1 man show, information products business anytime, anywhere.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Here is a guideline if you want to create your own information products. First of all, demand, demand, demand! Please do not just write anything according to your very own interest or your personal experience. Unless you are Justin Timberlake, Megan Fox or the President of America, I do not think anyone will be interested in your personal experience. Yes, this sounds harsh but reality IS harsh. Consumers demands rule! Get to know what people need and start writing on them.  You should not have to convince buyers that they need it. They should know that they need it.   Pandecta Magazine.If you are too lazy to do your market research, well, again, you can  sell information products  by  PLR. They have done your homework for you.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Secondly, please never let this go easily   quality! You should set your standards high. If possible, higher than your customers demands. Strive to not only meet up but exceed their expectations. This has always been the rule of the thumb to win customers be it online, offline, under the line, whatever line.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Besides quality, presentation aka packaging counts. Sad to say, if your logo and cover image look like a high school project, no one is going to

Tyi Wara :: Essays Papers

Tyi Wara The largest country in West Africa is Mali. Mali is bordered by seven other states. Mali is somewhat shaped like a butterfly, except that the left wing is much smaller then the right wing. The largest region of the country is the northwestern region. This region extends into the Sahara, and is almost entirely arid desert. The central region of the country is known as Sahel. Life in this region goes by the Niger River’s annual flood cycle. It has the highest amount of water between August and November. The Southwestern region of the country is more lush than the rest of the country. This is because rainfall, and rivers are more plentiful here. As you can tell, Mali’s single most important geographic feature is defiantly the Niger River. This river goes through Sahel and the southeastern region of the country. Both the Niger River and the Nile River are a major source of transportation for this country. Mali’s population consists of a number of different peoples. They are the Bambara, the Songhai, Mandinka, Senoufo, Fula, and Dogon. The majority of Mali’s people are Muslim. The official language of Mali is French. I will center in on one group of people, these are the Bambara. The Bambara people are a large ethnic group of 4 million. They are located throughout Mali, as well as in the northern areas of Cote D’lvoire, Guinea, Senegal and The Gambia. They are among the most powerful and influential ethnic groups in Mali. Most of the Bambara are farmers. Their main crop is millet. Both men and women share the farming duties. Their best known and most highly developed art form is the dance headdress. Which is in the form of an antelope. The antelope is more of an abstract design, that is sometimes in combination with human and other animal figures. These are used especially at agricultural rites. They are designed to urge the people on to produce plentiful crops. It is also to invoke the help of the spirits, by reenacting mythological scenes of the birth of agriculture. The antelope was supposed to have played a significant role in this. Two men, one wearing a male antelope headdress, the other wearing a female antelope headdress danced on the communal field. While they were doing this other young men hoed all day to mark the opening of the planting season. The appearance of the masked figures was a scared rite to honor the mythical wild creature who brought the knowledge of hoeing to mankind. The dancers were covered in long black fibers, and bent over on sticks. They imitated the cultivator, or pawed the ground like mating antelopes.

How many wolves are too many? :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1922 the federal government passed a law that allowed wolves in Yellowstone National Park to be hunted. In just four years later the last wolf was hunted. In 1995, the gray wolf was reintroduced to the park. The government started off by introducing 31 wolves in the Montana and Wyoming parts of the park. Now 116 wolves now live and more then 75 pups.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The controversy surrounding the reintroduction of the wolves are many from both sides. Some local farmers are against it because some wolves hunt their animals. However, if the farmers can prove their animal was attacked by a wolf, then the government would reimburse them for the animals value. Another problem is that some taxpayers are against the reintroduction because it cost them money to get the wolves back into the park. Another issue for taxpayers is that they have to pay for the damage the wolves do to the farmer’s animals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The pro for the reintroduction is the ecosystem is healthier. With the reintroduction, the wolf hunts sick deer and elk. The weak are sorted out and the strong survive. The same goes for the wolves. The wolves that are injured or have diseased cannot survive. When they die scavengers get to eat their meat, which contributes to the ecosystem.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another pro is more people come to Yellowstone National Park to see the wolves since they were extinct for more then 30 years. According to the National Parks Conservation Association, an average of 15,000 people see a wolf in Yellowstone a year. Douglas Smith, who is doing research about the wolves, recording a wolf sighting for 135 straight days from the park roads.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In other parks, the federal recovery program is going well. At Isle Royale National Park in Michigan, wolf’s population reached 29, which is the maximum number to survive in the ecosystem. Those 29 wolves can easily live sustainable off the 210 square miles of land. The state of Minnesota has more then 2,500 wolves living and roaming the lands.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many controversies surrounding the wolf protection policy. From the view of the farmers who loss there live stock, I understand why they would not want the wolves reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park or any place else. The problem I have with it is how does the government find market value for a cow? Is it a flat rate? Many questions surround the value of a cow or any other livestock.

Essay --

Webster defines feminism as both "the theory of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes" and "organized activity on the behalf of women's rights and interests" (Webster 418). Equality of the sexes (in terms of rights) and the furthering of women's rights are seemingly positive aspirations; yet people tend to describe feminism using negative terms, and feminism today has acquired a bad reputation. "Radical" and "extremists" are adjectives commonly applied to feminism as a whole, when, in truth, feminists who adopt extreme positions constitute the minority. Moreover, these "gender feminists," or "militant feminists," as many call them, although they receive the most public attention because of their aggressive tactics and high visibility, alienate people in broadcasting their views. Their goal, to create a "sentimental priesthood" that will achieve collective power and retribution as oppressed "victims" of a white-male supremacy, seems unreasonable (Himmelfarb 20). In contrast, "equity feminists," or "academic feminists," embrace the basic principles of feminism. They celebrate women's achievements, work for the individual rights of all women, and, as Christina Hoff Sommers aptly says, "want for women what they want for everyone, equal protection under the law" (Himmelfarb 20). Though not all feminists agree on how to reach this goal, most argue for a reasonable, realistic, and positive method. By contrasting the differing feminist ideas of writers like Adrienne Rich, Gertrude Himmelfarb, and Camille Paglia, one defines a winning brand of feminism: a philosophy founded on equity feminist ideology and dedicated to the achievement of social, political, economic, and intellectual reform. David Thomas and Camille Pag... ...minism by "constantly raising the stakes," and seeking "not mere reform or revision...but revolution" (Himmelfarb 20). In this way, they isolate themselves and lose support among both men and women for the entire feminist cause. John Ellis concludes that gender feminism "poisons relations between the sexes, and catapults into leadership roles in the women's movement angry, alienated women who divert that movement from the necessary task of exploring feasible changes" (74). People need to know that feminism, based on its essential ideals and goals, has broad appeal, and that they should not dismiss it because of a specific sector. They must look beyond the extremists to find a branch of feminism that welcomes all people and focuses on a positive and reasonable goal: a society that affords everyone the opportunity and right under the law to reach his or her potential.

Metals are electropositive chemical elements

Metals are electropositive chemical elements that are characterised by the following qualities: ductility, malleability, luster, opacity, and conductance of heat and electricity. They can replace the hydrogen of an acid and form bases with hydroxyl radicals. Density is defined as a material's mass divided by its volume. Metals typically have relatively high densities, particularly when compared to polymers. Often, materials with high densities contain atoms with high atomic numbers, such as gold or lead. However, some metals such as aluminum or magnesium have low densities. These metals are useful in applications requiring other metallic properties but in which low weight is also beneficial. Fracture Toughness can be described as a material's ability to avoid fracture, especially when a flaw is introduced. Glass, for example, has low fracture toughness (although it exhibits high strength in the absence of flaws). Metals typically have high fracture toughness. Metals can generally contain nicks and dents without weakening very much. They are also impact resistant. A football player relies on this fact to ensure that his facemask won't shatter. The roll cage on a racecar, for example, is created from steel. This steel should remain intact in a crash, protecting the driver. The ability of a material to bend or deform before breaking is known as plastic deformation. Some materials are designed so that they don't deform under normal conditions. You don't want your car to lean to the east after a strong west wind, for example. However, sometimes we can take advantage of plastic deformation. The crumple zones in a car absorb energy by undergoing plastic deformation before they break. Stress takes place when forces pull (this is known as tension), push (compression) or act in combination on a material. Once the force is applied, the material responds by distorting, counterbalancing the force. With a larger force, there will be a correspondingly greater distortion until the item breaks. Stress is the force applied per unit of cross-sectional area square to the force. This can be expressed mathematically as:: Stress (s) = Force / unit of area The metric system units for stress are Newton per square meter (N/m2) and imperial system units are pounds per square inch (psi). Strain is the amount the material deforms from the unloaded state when the force is applied. Its formula is: Strain (x) = Change in length / original length Since strain is a ratio of length divided by a length, it has no units. By the formula, we can see that it represents a proportional change in size. Deformation occurs when a force is applied to a metal. The metal is therefore strained. The greater the force – the more the deformation (strain). This relationship is recognised in Hooke's Law. Hooke's Law describes an elastic region where stress and strain are proportional (a straight line on a graph). In this region the metal acts like a spring and when the load is removed the deformation (strain) reduces and it returns to its original shape. If instead the load increases, the strain (deformation) rises and the metal undergoes uniform plastic deformation. The stress-strain graph is curved in this region. Eventually, a maximum stress is reached when the metal when the material reaches its limit of necking. Necking is localized thinning that occurs during sheet metal forming prior to fracture. The onset of localized necking is dependent upon the stress state which is affected by geometric factors. Finally, past the maximum stress point, a point is reached where the metal can no longer sustain the load and it yields. The behavior of metals under load is a result of their atomic arrangement. When a material is loaded it deforms minutely in reaction to the load. The atoms in the material move closer together in compression and further apart in tension. The amount an atom moves from its neighbor is its strain. As a force is applied the atoms change a proportionate distance. This model however, does not explain why there is sudden yielding. With most modern metals yielding usually occurs at about 1% of the theoretic strength of the atomic bonds. Many materials yield at about 0.1% of the theoretic strength. Rather, metals exhibit such low strengths because of imperfect atomic structures in the crystal lattices which comprise them. A row of atoms will often stop mid crystal, creating a gap in the atomic structure. These gaps act as dislocations, which are huge stress raising points in the metal. These dislocations move when the metal is stressed. A dislocation is defined as allowing atoms to slip one at a time, making it easier to deform metals. Dislocation interactions within a metal are a primary means by which metals are deformed and strengthened. When metals deform by dislocation motion, the more barriers the dislocations meet, the stronger the metal. The presence of dislocations in metal allows deformation at low levels of stress. However, eventually so many dislocations accumulate that insufficient atoms are left to take the load. This causes the metal to yield. Plastic deformation causes the formation of more dislocations in the metal lattice. This has the potential to create a decrease in the mobility of these dislocations due to their tendency to become tangled or pinned. When plastic deformation occurs at temperatures low enough that atoms cannot rearrange, the metal can be strengthened as a result of this effect. Unfortunately, this also causes the metal to become more brittle. As a metal is used, it tends to form and grow cracks, which eventually cause it to break or fracture. Atoms of melted metal pack together to form a crystal lattice at the freezing point. As this occurs, groups of these atoms form tiny crystals. These crystals have their size increased by progressively adding atoms. The resulting solid, instead of being a single crystal, is actually many smaller crystals, called grains. These grains will then grow until they impose upon neighbouring growing crystals. The interface between the grains is called a grain boundary. Dislocations cannot easily cross grain boundaries. If a metal is heated, the grains can grow larger and the material becomes softer. Heating a metal and cooling it quickly (quenching), followed by gentle heating (tempering), results in a harder material due to the formation of many small Fe3C precipitates which block dislocations. The atomic bonding of metals also affects their properties. Metal atoms are attached to each other by strong, delocalized bonds. These bonds are formed by a cloud of valence electrons that are shared between positive metal ions (cations) in a crystal lattice. These outer valence electrons are also very mobile. This explains why electrons can conduct heat and electricity – the free electrons are easily able to transfer energy through the material. As a result, metals make good cooking pans and electrical wires. In the crystal lattice, metal atoms are packed closely together to maximize the strength of the bonds. It is also impossible to see through metals, since the valence electrons absorb any photons of light hitting the metal. Thus, no photons pass through. Alloys are compounds consisting of more than one metal. Creating alloys of metals can affect the density, strength, fracture toughness, plastic deformation, electrical conductivity and environmental degradation. As an example, adding a small amount of iron to aluminum will make it stronger. Alternatively, adding some chromium to steel will slow the rusting process, but will make it more brittle. Some alloys have a higher resistance to corrosion. Corrosion, by the way, is a major problem with most metals. It occurs due to an oxidation-reduction reaction in which metal atoms form ions causing the metal to weaken. The following technique that has been developed to combat corrosion in structural applications: sacrificial anode made of a metal with a higher oxidation potential is attached to the metal. Using this procedure, the sacrificial anode corrodes, leaving the structural part, the cathode, undamaged. Corrosion can also be resisted by the formation of a protective coating on the outside of a metal. For example, steels that contain chromium metal form a protective coating of chromium oxide. Aluminum is also exhibits corrosion resistant properties because of the formation of a strong oxide coating. The familiar green patina formed by copper is created through a reaction with sulfur and oxygen in the air. In nature, only a few pure metals are found. Most metals in nature exist as ores, which are compounds of the metal with oxygen or sulfur. The separation of the pure metal from the ore typically requires large amounts of energy as heat and/or electricity. Because of this large expenditure of energy, recycling metals is very important. Many metals have high strength, high stiffness, and have good ductility. Some metals, such as iron, cobalt and nickel are magnetic. Finally, at extremely low temperatures, some metals and intermetallic compounds become superconductors. Ceramic: Ceramic materials are inorganic, nonmetallic materials, typically oxides, nitrides, or carbides. Most ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements in which the interatomic bonds are either totally ionic, or predominantly ionic but having some covalent character. While many adopt crystalline structures, some form glasses. The properties of the ceramics are due to their bonding and structure. The term ceramic comes from the Greek word keramikos, which means burnt stuff! This signifies that the desirable properties of these materials are typically achieved through a high-temperature heat treatment process. This process is called firing. Ceramics are often defined to simply be any inorganic nonmetallic material. By this definition, glasses are also ceramic materials. However, some materials scientists state that a true ceramic must also be crystalline, which excludes glasses. The term â€Å"ceramic† once referred only to clay-based materials. However, new generations of ceramic materials have tremendously expanded the scope and number of possible applications, broadening the definition significantly. Many of these new materials have a major impact on our daily lives and on our society. Ceramics and glasses possess the following useful properties: high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Additionally, ceramics are often good electrical and thermal insulators. Since they are good thermal insulators, ceramics can withstand high temperatures and do not expand greatly when heated. This makes them excellent thermal barriers. The applications of this property range from lining industrial furnaces, to covering the space shuttle, shielding it from high reentry temperatures. The aforementioned glasses are transparent, amorphous ceramics which are extensively used in windows and lenses, as well as many other familiar applications. Light can induce an electrical response in some ceramics. This response is called photoconductivity. An example of photoconductivity occurs in fiber optic cable. Fiber optic cable is speedily replacing copper for communications – optical fibers can transmit more information for longer distances, and have less interference and signal loss than traditional copper wires. Ceramics are also typically strong, hard, and durable materials. As a result, they are attractive structural materials. One significant drawback to their use is their brittleness. However, this problem is being addressed by the creation of new materials such as composites. While ceramics are typically good insulators, some ceramics can actually act as superconductors. Thus, they are used in a wide range of applications. Some (the good insulators) are capacitors, others semiconductors in electronic devices. Some ceramics are piezoelectric materials, which convert mechanical pressure into an electrical signal. These are extremely useful for sensors. For superconducting ceramics, there is a strong research effort to discover new high Tc superconductors and to then develop possible applications. Processing of crystalline ceramics is based on the basic steps which have been used for ages to make clay products. The materials are first selected, then prepared, formed into a required shape, and finally sintered at high temperatures. Glasses, on the other hand, are typically processed by pouring while in a molten state. They are then worked into shape while hot, and finally cooled. There are also new methods, such as chemical vapor deposition and sol-gel processing, currently being developed. Ceramics have a wide range of applications. For example, ceramic tiles cover the space shuttle as well as our kitchen floors. Ceramic electronic devices make possible high-tech instruments for everything from medicine to entertainment. There are also some special properties which a few ceramics possess. For example, some ceramics are magnetic materials and, as mentioned above, some have piezoelectric properties. The one major drawback of ceramics and glasses is that they are brittle. As mentioned above, certain types of ceramics possess superconducting properties at extremely low temperatures. For example, there are high-temperature superconducting ceramic materials that have recently been discovered. These materials exhibit virtually no electrical resistance below 100 degrees Kelvin. Also, these materials exhibit what is known as the Meissner effect. This means that they repel magnetic flux lines, allowing a magnet to hang in the space above the superconductor. An example of special group of crystalline ceramics is the group called Perovskites. They have captured the interest of geologists due to the information they can yield about Earth's history. The most intensely studied Perovskites at the present time are those that superconduct at liquid nitrogen temperatures. Ceramics were historically used for creating pottery and artwork, largely because the brittleness and difficulty of manufacturing ceramics restricted them from other uses until recently. However, the market requirement for microelectronics and structural composite components has risen, causing the demand for ceramic materials to likewise increase. Fiber-reinforced composites, an example of a modern ceramic application, are being created from ceramic fibers with extremely high stiffness, such as graphite and aluminum oxide. Polymers: Polymers are substances which contain a large number of structural units joined by the same type of linkage. They are any of many natural and synthetic compounds, usually of high molecular weight. They typically consist of up to millions of repeated linked units, each a relatively light and simple molecule. These substances often form into a chain-like structure. Some polymers have been around since the beginning of time in the natural world. For example, starch, cellulose, and rubber all possess polymeric properties. Man-made polymers, a relatively recent development, have been studied since 1832. However, the polymer industry today has is larger than the aluminum, copper and steel industries combined. Polymers have a huge range of applications that greatly surpasses that of any other class of material available to man. Current applications include adhesives, coatings, foams, packaging materials, textile and industrial fibers, elastomers, and structural plastics. Polymers are also widely used for many composites, electronic devices, biomedical devices, optical devices, and precursors for many newly developed high-tech ceramics (such as the fiber-reinforced composite mentioned at the end of the ceramic section). The word polymer literally has the meaning â€Å"many parts.† A polymeric solid material can be considered to be one containing many chemically bonded parts or units, themselves which are bonded together to form a solid. Polymers are typically good insulators. While a large variety of polymer applications were described above, two of the most industrially important polymeric materials are plastics and elastomers. Plastics are a large and varied group of synthetic materials. They are processed by forming or molding into shape. There are many types of plastics such as polyethylene and nylon. Polymers can be separated into two different groups depending on their behaviour when heated. Polymers with linear molecules are often thermoplastic. Thermoplastic substances soften upon heating and can be remolded and recycled. They can be semi-crystalline or amorphous. The other group of polymers is the thermosets. In contast to thermoplastics, these substances do not soften under heat and pressure and cannot be remolded or recycled. Instead, they must be remachined, used as fillers, or incinerated to remove them from the environment. Thermoplastics are typically carbon-containing polymers which are synthesized by addition or condensation polymerization. This procedure forms strong covalent bonds within the chains and weaker secondary Van der Waals bonds between the chains. Normally, the secondary forces can be easily overcome by thermal energy, which makes thermoplastics moldable at high temperatures. After cooling, thermoplastics will also retain their newly reformed shape. Common applications of thermoplastics include parts for common household appliances, bottles, cable insulators, tape, blender and mixer bowls, medical syringes, mugs, textiles, packaging, and insulation. Thermosets exhibit the same Van der Waals bonds that thermoplastics do. They also have a stronger linkage to other chains. Different chains together in a thermoset material are chemically held together by strong covalent bonds. The chains may be directly bonded to each other, or alternatively may be bonded through other molecules. This â€Å"cross-linking† between the chains is what allows the material to resist softening upon heating. Thus, thermosets must be machined into a new shape if they are to be reused or they can serve as powdered fillers. However, while thermosets are difficult to reform, they have many distinct advantages in engineering design applications. These include high thermal stability and insulating properties, high rigidity and dimensional stability, resistance to creep and deformation under load, and low weight. A few common applications for thermosets include epoxies (glues), automobile body parts, adhesives for plywood and particle board, and as a matrix for composites in boat hulls and tanks. The polymer molecule, a long chain of covalent-bonded atoms, is the basic building block of a plastic. Polymers are typically carbon based and have relatively low melting points. Polymers have a very wide range of properties that enable them to be extensively used in society. Some uses include car parts, food storage, electronic packaging, optical components, and adhesives. Synthetic fabrics are essentially man-made copies of natural fabrics. Synthetic fibers do not occur in nature as themselves. They are usually derivatives of petroleum products. Examples of common synthetic fabrics are polyester, spandex, rayon, and velcro. Recent technological developments have lead to electrically conductive polymers. The behaviour of semiconductors can now be achieved with polymeric systems. For example, there are semiconducting polymers which, when sandwiched between two electrodes, can generate light of any color. This technology has the potential of leading to OLED (organic light-emitting diode) flat panel displays. This display would be light in weight, have low power consumption, and perhaps be flexible. Liquid crystals are another example of polymeric materials. As the name suggests, a liquid crystal is a state of matter intermediate between a standard liquid and a solid. Liquid crystal phases are formed from geometrically anisotropic molecules. This typically means they are cigar shaped, although other shapes are possible. The polymer molecules have a certain degree of order in a liquid crystal phase. Take the simplest case, the Nematic phase, in which the molecules generally point in the same direction but still move around with respect to one another as would be expected in a liquid. However, under the influence of an applied electric field, the alignment of the polymer molecules gives rise to light absorption. Composites: Composites are materials, usually man-made, that are a three-dimensional combination of at least two chemically distinct materials, with a distinct interface separating the components. They are created to obtain properties that cannot be achieved by any of the components acting alone. In composites, one of the materials, called the reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, sheets, or particles. This material is embedded in the other materials, called the matrix phase. The reinforcing material and the matrix material can be metal, ceramic, or polymer. Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with low densities while the matrix is usually a ductile, or tough, material. The purpose of the composite, when it is designed and fabricated correctly, is to combine the strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to achieve a combination of desirable properties not available in any single conventional material. The downside is that such composites are often more expensive than conventional materials. Some examples of current applications of composites include the diesel piston, brake-shoes and pads, tires and the Beechcraft aircraft in which 100% of the structural components are composites. A structural composite often begins with lay-up of prepreg. At this point, the choice of fiber will influence the basic tensile and compressive strength and stiffness, electrical and thermal conductivity, and thermal expansion of the final pre-preg material. The cost of the composite can also be strongly influenced by the fiber selected. The resin/fiber composite's strength depends primarily on the amount, arrangement and type of fiber (or particle) reinforcement in the resin. Typically, the higher the reinforcement content, the greater the strength. There are also some cases in which glass fibers are combined with other fibers, such as carbon or aramid, to create a hybrid composite that combines the properties of more than one reinforcing material. Additionally, the composite is typically formulated with fillers and additives that change processing or performance parameters. Integrating the ceramic, metallic, plastic and semiconductor materials is a necessary requirement to the fabrication of the micro-electronics package. This is an example of a composite system whose function is to provide interface between the central IC (Integrated Chip) and the other items on, for example, a PCB (printed circuit board). Semiconductors: There is a relatively small group of elements and compounds that has an important electrical property, semi-conduction, which makes them neither good electrical conductors nor good electrical insulators. Instead, their ability to conduct electricity is intermediate. These materials are called semiconductors, and in general, they do not fit into any of the structural materials categories based on atomic bonding. For example, metals are inherently good electrical conductors. Ceramics and polymers (non-metals) are generally poor conductors but good insulators. The semiconducting elements (Si, Ge, and Sn) from column IV of the periodic table serve as a kind of boundary between metallic and nonmetallic elements. Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge), widely used elemental semiconductors, are outstanding examples of this class of materials. These elemental semiconductors are also known as Mono Semiconductors. Binary semiconductors are formed by a compound of two elements, normally an element from group III combined with an element from group V (such as CdS), or a element from group II combined with an element from group VI (such as GaAs). Tertiary semiconductors are formed by a compound of three elements. These semiconductors are typically compounds of elements from groups I, III and VI (such as AgInS) or elements from groups II, IV and V (such as ZnGeAs). All materials have energy bands in which their electrons can exist. In metals, as stated above, the valence band is partially-filled, and the electrons can move through the material. In semiconductors, on the other hand, there is a band gap that exists, and electrons cannot jump the gap easily at low temperatures. At higher temperatures, more of the semiconductor`s electrons can jump the gap. This causes its conductivity to go up accordingly. Electrical properties can also be changed by doping This too, is one of their great assets. Putting impurities in a semiconductor material can result in two different types of electrical behaviour. These are the so-called n (negative) and p (positive) type materials. Group V elements like arsenic added to a group IV element, such as silicon or germanium, to produce n-type materials. This occurs due to the extra valence electron in group V materials. On the other hand, group III materials like boron produce the p-type because they have only three valence electrons. When n-type material is connected to a p-type material, the device then exhibits diode behaviour. In other words, current can flow in one direction across the interface but not in the other. Diodes can act as rectifiers, but they have also led to the development of the transistor. A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a diode with an added third material which creates a second interface. While both npn or pnp types exist, their basic operation is essentially the same as two diodes connected to each other. With proper biasing of the voltages across each diode of the device, large current amplification can be produced. Today, metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETS) have become widely used and have replaced the BJT in many applications. As a result, millions of transistors can be placed on a single silicon chip or integrated circuit. These IC chips have better reliability and consume less power than the large vacuum tube circuits of the past. The fabrication of electronic devices from the raw materials requires two major steps. The semiconductor is first melted, and a seed crystal is used to draw a large crystal of pure, solid semiconductor from the liquid. Wafers of the semiconductor are sliced and polished. Second, the circuit pattern is etched or deposited using a photolithographic process. The individual chips are finally sectioned from the initial wafer. Semiconductors experience covalent bonding. Their electrons are more tightly bound than the electrons in metals, but much more loosely bound than the electrons in insulators. The atoms in semiconductors are typically arranged in a crystal structure: a diamond-like tetrahedral (in which each atom is bonded to 4 others). Semiconductors are also typically semi-shiny. The intermediate ability of semiconductors to conduct electricity at room temperature makes them very useful for electronic applications. For example, the modern computing industry was made possible by the capability of silicon transistors to act as fast on/off switches. Electronic computing speed has greatly increased with the integrated circuit. For example, the cycle times of today's computers are now measured in nanoseconds. Opto-electronic (laser diode) research is extending the already huge rate at which information can be transmitted. Biomaterials: A biomaterial is any nondrug material that can be used to treat, enhance, or replace any tissue, organ, or function in an organism. The term biomaterial refers to a biologically derived material that is used for its structural rather than its biological properties. It also refers to any material, natural or man-made, that comprises whole or part of a living structure, or biomedical device which performs, augments, or replaces a natural function. A biomaterial can be a metal, ceramic, polymer or composite. They may be distinguished from other materials because they possess a combination of properties, including chemical, mechanical physical and biological properties, which allow them to be suitable for safe, effective and reliable use within a physiological environment. For example, collagen, the protein found in bone and connective tissues, can be used as a cosmetic ingredient. A second example is carbohydrates modified with biotechnological processes that have been used as lubricants for biomedical applications or as bulking agents in food manufacture. The performance of biomaterials depends on material properties, design, biocompatibility, surgical technique, and the health of patient. In particular, biocompatibility relies on the acceptance of the device by the body. Ideally, there should be no irritation, inflammation, or allergic response Both biomaterials and biomechanical expertise are needed to perform in vitro testing of spinal implants. Endo-vascular stents provide structural support vessels following angioplasty and other major medical procedures. After an angioplasty procedure, vessels can experience re-stenosis and eventually return to their original pre-operative diameter. In as many as 10% of the procedures, the vessels may even collapse immediately. To prevent the vessels from shrinking, endo-vascular prosthesis or stents are used. These stents are examples of biomaterials. Stents are tubular structures consisting of a spring, wire mesh or slotted tubes that are deployed inside the vessel. Depending on the design and intended use (coronary/ peripheral), they can range in diameter from several millimeters to many times that size. A biomaterial must be typically have the following properties: it must be inert or specifically interactive, biocompatible, mechanically and chemically stable (or biodegradable), processable (for manufacturability), have good shelf life, be nonthrombogenic (does not cause clot formation) if it is blood-contacting, and be sterilizable. There are examples of biomaterials and compatibility problems which arise from the materials not having the above properties. These include dialysis tubing made of cellulose acetate, a â€Å"commodity plastic†, which is known to activate platelets and blood complement. Additionally, Dacron, a polymer widely used in textiles, has been used in vascular grafts, but only gives occlusion-free service for diameters larger than 6 mm. Finally, commercial grade polyurethanes, initially used in artificial hearts, can be thrombogenic (they cause clot formation). There are many prominent applications of biomaterials used in the medical profession today. Biomaterials are used in orthopedics for joint replacements (hip, knee), bone cements, bone defect fillers, fracture fixation plates, and artificial tendons and ligaments. They are also used for cardiovascular vascular grafts, heart valves, pacemakers, artificial heart and ventricular assist device components, stents, balloons, and blood substitutes. Another application is in ophthalmics, for contact lenses, corneal implants and artificial corneas, and intraocular lenses. They can also have cosmetic applications, such as in augmentation mammoplasty. Finally, other applications include dental implants, cochlear implants, tissue screws and tacks, burn and wound dressings and artificial skin, tissue adhesives and sealants, drug-delivery systems, matrices for cell encapsulation and tissue engineering, and sutures. 2). The following paragraphs will provide an analysis of the modern pop can and the considerations taken by the manufacturer in its design. The overall design of the can has several advantages over another popular beverage container, the glass bottle. The pop can is inherently light weight and cheap due to the aluminum or steel alloys that are used in its creation. The cost of a can accounts for only about 4 cents of the price of a canned beverage. About 10 cents goes for advertising. The 12 ounces of beverage in the container typically costs less than a penny to produce. It is also not easily breakable, unlike glass. The shape of the can is easy to hold in the hand, making it much easier for a customer to use. The aluminum or steel alloys of the can also have the ability to undergo expansion without breaking the container. Thus, if a pop can is frozen, it will not explode, it will simply deform. Glass, on the other hand, would not as easily deform and would likely break in this situation. Pop cans are also allow cheaper packaging methods than bottles to be used. This is because the cans can come into contact with each other without breaking, unlike bottles. This allows many cans to be transported without the need for extensive protective barriers between the individual cans. An additional feature that allows the cans to be more easily transported and organised is the shape of the bottom and top of the can. Both the bottom and top have a lip. This lip protrudes upward from the top and downwards from the bottom. In other words, there is a indentation in both the top and bottom of the can, as shown in the following figure: The radii of the top and bottom lips are matched so that one can is able to be stacked on top of another can. In other words, the top lip of one can fits neatly into the bottom lip of the second can. This is shown in the following diagram. This stacking feature is not possible with bottles, since the bottom base of a bottle does not resemble its top spout. The pop-top soda, with their attached tab, can provide an excellent example of inherently safer design from everyday life. When soda in cans was first introduced, a separate device was required to open these cans, and the first â€Å"pop-tops† represented a major advance in convenience (and environmentalism). The initial pop-tops were scored tear strips in the can top with attached rings or levers to grasp and tear the metal tab from the can. The top was completely removed from the can once the tab was opened, and this top was then discarded. These tabs were therefore environmental hazards when discarded. Alternatively, some people would dispose of the tab by placing it into the can before drinking the soda. This caused the tab to occasionally be swallowed when drinking from the can, so it sometimes had to be surgically removed. The current design of the pop-top soda can, where the tab remains an integral part of the can after opening, represents an inherently safer design. While the tab can be detached by flexing it back and forth until the metal fails, this requires some additional effort to do. It is therefore easier to use the can safely. The procedure involved in creating pop cans will now be outlined. This procedure demonstrates some of the major components of the cans. Modern pop cans are made from either steel or aluminium using advanced engineering and sophisticated technology. There is a special grade of low-carbon steel is used for steel drink cans, which is coated on each side with a very thin layer of tin. This tin allows the surface to be protected against corrosion. It also acts as a lubricant while the can is being formed. In aluminium cans, the aluminium is alloyed with magnese and magnesium, providing greater strength and ductility. Aluminium alloys of different strengths and thickness are used for making the can body and the end. The reason that the alloy used from the end must be stronger than that used for the body will be described shortly. The steps involved in manufacturing cans are illustrated in a simplified way below: The aluminium or steel strip arrives at the can manufacturing plant in huge coils. A thin film of oil is then used to lubricate the strip. The strip is then fed continuously through a cupping press that blanks and draws thousands of shallow cups every minute. Each cup is pressed through a set of tungsten carbide rings. This ironing process redraws and literally thins and raises the walls of the cans into their final can shape. Trimmers are then used to remove the surplus irregular edge and cut each can to a precise, specific height. The excess can material is recycled. These trimmed can bodies are passed through highly efficient washers. They are then dried. As a result, all traces of oil are removed in preparation for coating internally and externally. The clean cans are coated externally with a clear or pigment base coat. This coat provides a good surface for the printing inks. The cans are then passed through a hot air oven to dry the lacquer onto the surface. Next, a highly sophisticated printer/decorator applies the printed design in up to six colours. A varnish is also applied. 9.A coat of varnish is also applied to the base of each can by a rim-coater. 10.The cans pass through a second oven which dries the inks and varnish. 11.The inside of each can is sprayed with lacquer. This special layer is to protect the can itself from corrosion and its contents from any possibility of interaction with the metal. 12.Once again, lacquered internal and external surfaces are dried in an oven. 13.The cans are passed through a necker/flanger. Here the diameter of the wall is reduced or ‘necked-in'. The top of the can is flanged outwards to accept the end once the can has been filled. 14.Every can is tested at each stage of manufacture. At the final stage it passes through a light tester which automatically rejects any cans with pinholes or fractures. 15.The finished can bodies are then transferred to the warehouse to be automatically palletised before dispatch to filling plant. The Can End 1.Can end manufacture begins with a coil of special alloy aluminum sheet. 2.The sheet is fed through a press which stamps out thousands of ends every minute. 3.At the same stage the edges are curled. 4.The newly formed ends are passed through a lining machine which applies a very precise bead of compound sealant around the inside of the curl. 5.A video inspection system checks the ends to ensure they are perfect. TAB.The pull tabs are made from a narrow width coil of aluminum. The strip is first pierced and cut and the tab is formed in two further stages before being joined to the can end. 6.The ends pass through a series of dies which score them and attach the tabs, which are fed in from a separate source. 7.The final product is the retained ring pull end. 8.The finished ends, ready for capping the filled cans, are packaged in paper sleeves and palletised for shipment to the can filler. As mentioned above, a printer/decorator is used in the manufacturing of cans to apply a printed design in up to six colours to the can body. A varnish is then applied. A varnish is a viscid liquid, consisting of a solution of resinous matter in an oil, or a volatile liquid, typically laid on work with a brush. Once it is applied, the varnish soon dries, either by evaporation or chemical action, and the resinous part forms thus a smooth, hard surface, with a beautiful gloss, capable of resisting, to a greater or less degree, the influences of air and moisture. The varnish therefore improves the appearance of the printed design on the can. It also increases the durability of the design by ensuring that it is more resistant to the wearing effects of the elements. This can be readily observed through common experience. Even old, used pop cans retain their printed designs very well, despite being subjected to the elements such as moisture or air. Bottles, on the other hand, typically have paper labels attached with glue. This requires glue and paper. These bottle labels also do not possess the glossy sheen of the pop can design. Finally, they are more easily susceptible to the influences of the elements, particularly air and moisture. For example, placing a glass bottle and its label in water will cause the label to saturate with water. This degrades the legibility and appearance of the label, and greatly increases the chance that it will tear or fall off the bottle. In contrast, placing a pop can in water has no effect on the legibility, appearance, or durability of the printed design. The base-coater gives the can an exterior coat to enable the printing colours to fix properly (the base coat is sometimes The of the pop can is a separate piece to allow filling by the beverage maker prior to the top being installed. It can now be revealed why bottled beer and beer from a tap tastes different from beer in a can. Be forewarned: if you're a six-pack enthusiast, you're not going to like the explanation. When you sip a can of your favorite brew, you are savoring not only fermented grain and hops but just a hint of the same preservative that kept the frog you dissected in 10th-grade biology class lily-pad fresh: formaldehyde. What is formaldehyde doing in beer? The same thing it's doing in pop and other food and drink packaged in steel and aluminum cans: killing bacteria. But not the bacteria in the drink, the bacteria that attacks a lubricant used in the manufacture of the can. Notre Dame's Steven R. Schmid, associate professor of aerospace and mechanical engineering, is an expert in tribology – the study of friction, wear and the lubrication – applied to manufacturing and machine design. The co-author of two textbooks, Fundamentals of Machine Elements and Manufacturing Engineering and Technology (considered the bible of manufacturing engineering), Schmid has conducted extensive research on the manufacturing processes used in the production of beverage and other kinds of cans. Schmid explains that back in the 1940s, when brewers and other beverage makers began putting drinks in steel (and, later, aluminum) cans, the can makers added formaldehyde to a milk-like mixture of 95 percent water and 5 percent oil that's employed in the can manufacturing process. The mixture, called an emulsion, bathes the can material and the can-shaping tooling, cooling and lubricating both. Additives in the oil part are certain bacteria's favorite food. But if the bacteria eat the emulsion, it won't work as a lubricant anymore. So can makers add a biocide to the emulsion to kill the bacteria. Before a can is filled and the top attached, this emulsion is rinsed off, but a small residue of the oil-water mixture is inevitably left behind, including trace amounts of the biocide. The amounts remaining are not enough to be a health hazard, but they are enough to taste, and the first biocide used back in the 1940s was formaldehyde. In the decades since, can makers have devised new formulas for emulsions, always with an eye toward making them more effective, more environmentally friendly and less costly. But because formaldehyde was in the original recipe, people got used to their canned Budweiser or whatever having a hint of the famous preservative's flavor. For this reason, Schmid says, every new emulsion formula since then has had to be made to taste like formaldehyde, â€Å"or else people aren't going to accept it.† Extensive tests are run to make sure the lubricant and additives taste like formaldehyde. â€Å"It's not that it tastes okay. It's just what people are used to tasting,† he says. (Miller Genuine Draft and similar brews, Schmid says, use biocides that have no flavor.) The formaldehyde flavor legacy is one little-known aspect of can-making. Another involves the smooth coating applied to the inside of cans. The rinse cycle that attempts to wash off the emulsion also aims to remove particulate metal debris that forms on the metal's surface during the bending and shaping of a can. Like the emulsion, some of the microscopic debris always remains after rinsing. Unlike the emulsion, it can be dangerous to swallow. To keep powdered metal out of a can's contents, Schmid says, manufacturers spray-coat the inside with a polymer dissolved in a solvent. When the can is heated, the solvent boils away, leaving only the protective polymer coating. The coating not only plasters any microscopic debris to the can wall and away from the food, it keeps the food from interacting with can material, an especially important consideration with steel cans. â€Å"Say you've got tomato soup in this steel can. You don't want that acidic soup corroding your can. It would kill your can, and the can would adulterate your food,† Schmid says. â€Å"It's also why you're advised that when you go camping and you have Spaghettios you don't cook them in the can, because the polymer will degrade and you're going to be eating polymer.† (Industry sources tell Schmid that the typical consequences of such a culinary blunder are headaches and constipation.) Schmid says can manufacturers are forever searching for ways to improve efficiency in their struggle to stay price competitive with plastic and glass bottles. A single can-tooling machine can form 400 cans a minute. In a typical process, all but the top is shaped during a single stroke through a disk of aluminum or steel. The top, seamed on after filling, is made of a more expensive aluminum alloy, rich in magnesium. The added ductile strength of the magnesium is necessary so another machine can mash down a pillar of the metal to form the rivet that attaches the pop top. Today's beverage cans are â€Å"necked† near the top for a reason. The narrower-diameter means less of the expensive lid alloy is needed. It saves a minuscule fraction of a cent per can, but it adds up, Schmid says. â€Å"In this country alone we use about a can per person per day, so you have to make 250 million cans per day. It's an amazing thing to watch these machines kick out these cans.† Rivet is likely a separate part from the tab. It should be strong enough to attach the tab to the can and to ensure that it does not break when the can is opened. Lip on top of can prevents liquid from flowing down the side of the can. Bottom is indented to enable stacking even when the tab has been opened. The indent provides the necessary room for the open tab. For recycling purposes, pop cans can be neatly compacted flat, and are easy to transport using a wide range of containers. Rivet is a separate piece which connects the tab to the can top. Top of the pop can is stamped with words such as â€Å"recyclable† and â€Å"return for refund†. Thus, the alloy of the top must be soft enough to allow this stamping to occur. Aluminum costs more than steel, and the price has been rising. Steel â€Å"minimills† now have continuous casting processes that make sheet steel thin enough to form seamless cans. And there is competition from other materials as well. â€Å"We h ave to find ways to make cans lighter and lighter to keep fending off polymers, steel and glass. Lighter cans means lower prices to the consumer, who's then more likely to buy cans off the grocery shelf instead of two-liter bottles or glass.† ALCOA's answer is lightweighting, designing cans to use the thinnest aluminum possible within the constraints of strength and appearance. In 1993, Americans recycled 59.5 billion aluminum cans, 3 billion more than in 1991, and raised the national aluminum can recycling rate to 2 out of every 3 cans. Aluminum can recycling saves 95% of the energy needed to make aluminum from bauxite ore. Energy savings in 1993 alone were enough to light a city the size of Pittsburgh for 6 years. Special pallets and stacking techniques are used to protect can bodies from crushing stresses and to enable quick and efficient loading into the filling machine line. The first beverage can, filled by a brewer in Newark, New Jersey in 1935, weighed three ounces. Today, an aluminum beverage can weighs one half ounce – 600% less than the original beverage can. Can manufacturers strive to do even better through a process called â€Å"light weighting†-the use of lighter can ends and thinner body walls. Using less material at the beginning of the manufacturing process results in a more effective means of creating safe, reliable, performance-driven packaging. This results in less waste once the packages' contents have been consumed. It also saves manufacturers money – an added incentive. 3). The diameter of the bar is 12.7 mm. Its radius is half the diameter. Therefore, its radius can be calculated to be (12.7 mm)/ 2 = 6.35 mm. By applying the conversion factor that 1000 mm = 1 m, this radius can also be expressed as (6.35 mm) * (1 m / 1000 mm) = 6.35 x 10-3 m. The bar has a cross-sectional area given by the following formula: Cross-sectional area = ?r2 where r is the radius of the steel bar. Using this formula, the cross-sectional area of the bar can be calculated to be: Cross-sectional area = ?(6.35 x 10-3 m)2 Cross-sectional area = 1.266768698 x 10-4 m2 (Cross-sectional area = 1.27 x 10-4 m2 when significant figures are applied). Gravity applies a force to the bar proportional to the bar's mass. This force is given by the formula: Force due to Gravity = (Mass of object) * (Acceleration of Gravity) If we assume that the steel bar is located at the surface of the earth, the acceleration of gravity is approximately 9.8 m/s2 at this elevation. Therefore, the force applied to the bar by gravity can be calculated to be: Force due to Gravity = (7000 kg) * (9.8 m/s2) Force due to Gravity = 68600 kg*m/s2 (Force due to Gravity = 70000 kg*m/s2 when significant figures are applied) The stress placed on the bar is given by the following formula: Stress = (force) / (unit area) Therefore, the stress placed on the bar can be calculated to be: Stress = (68600 kg*m/s2) / (1.266768698 x 10-4 m2) Stress = 541535326.2 kg/(m*s2) (Stress = 500000000 kg/(m*s2) when significant figures are applied) The steel bar has a modulus of elasticity of 205,000 Mpa. 1 Pa is defined to be equal to 1 kg/(m*s2). Using the conversion factor that 1 x 106 Pa = 1 Mpa, 1 Mpa is defined to be equal to 1 x 106 kg/(m*s2). We can therefore express the modulus of elasticity of the steel bar in Pa as (205,000 Mpa) * (1 x 106 Pa / 1 Mpa) = 2.05 x 1012 Pa. The strain experienced by the steel bar is the fractional deformation it undergoes when a stress is applied. This strain can be represented mathematically by the following formula: where l represents the length of bar, and ?l represents the change in length of the bar due to the applied stress. The elastic region of the stress-strain curve refers to the portion of the curve in which an increase in stress will cause a linearly proportional increase in strain. Within this elastic region, removal of the stress will cause the strain to be reduced to zero as well. In other words, the material is not permanently deformed, and removal of the stress causes the material to return to its original dimensions. The strain is therefore reversible, or elastic. In the elastic region, therefore, stress and strain can be related by a proportionality coefficient. This proportionality coefficient relating the reversible strain to stress in the elastic region of the stress-strain curve is known as the modulus of elasticity. This modulus of elasticity can be represented mathematically as: Modulus of Elasticity = (Elastic Stress) / (Unit Strain) This equation can be rearranged to solve for the unit strain. This rearranged equation is expressed as: Unit Strain = (Elastic Stress) / (Modulus of Elasticity) Assuming the stress applied to the bar is small enough to ensure that the bar is still operating in the elastic region of the stress-strain curve, we can use the above equation to determine how much the bar will be strained by the load. Mathematically, this solution takes the following form: Unit Strain = (541535326.2 kg/(m*s2)) / (2.05 x 1012 Pa) Unit Strain = (541535326.2 kg/(m*s2)) / (2.05 x 1012 kg/(m*s2)) Unit Strain = 2.641635738 x 10-4 (Unit Strain = 3 x 10-4 when significant figures are applied) This strain is unitless because it represents the fractional deformation of the bar when the stress is applied.